Scaletti provides a working definition of sonification. Models of data as continuous streams and as discrete events are illustrated using the author's sound specification language Kyma. Several sound synthesis algorithms are outlined, each with an example application, and there is a summary of which synthesis algorithms are best applied to which kinds of data. The paper concludes with an enumeration of some of the open questions and future research directions in the field of auditory display.

Scaletti, C., and A. B. Craig. "Using Sound to Extract Meaning from Complex Data." In Extracting Meaning from Complex Data: Processing, Display, Interaction, edited by E. J. Farrel, Vol. 1259, 147--153. SPIE, 1990.

Because sound is an inherently time-variable phenomena, Scaletti and Craig concentrated their ADR work on the representation of time-varying data mapped to animated graphics and sound. Examples discussed include sonifications of forest fire data, Los Angeles pollution levels, and swinging pendula.

Schafer, R. M. The Tuning of the World. New York: Knopf, 1977.

Schafer describes studies of the acoustic environment undertaken in the World Soundscape Project including historical changes in the acoustic environment, cross-cultural studies of listening preferences and sound interpretation, and studies of references to sound in literature.

Scharf, B., and S. Buus. "Audition I: Stimulus, Physiology, Thresholds." In Handbook of Perception and Human Performance, edited by K. R. Boff, L. Kaufman, and J. P. Thomas, Vol. 1, 14.1--14.71. New York: Wiley, 1986.

Standard reference to have on your bookshelf.

Scharf, B., and A. J. M. Houtsma. "Audition II: Pitch, Localization, Aural Distortion, Pathology." In Handbook of Perception and Human Performance, edited by K. R. Boff, L. Kaufman, and J. P. Thomas, Chap. 26. New York: Wiley, 1986.

This book covers psychophysical performance in detection and discrimination of intensity and frequency, sound localization, and perception of loudness and pitch.

Scherer, Klaus R., and James S. Oshinsky. "Cue Utilization in Emotion Attribution from Auditory Stimuli." Motivation & Emotion 1(4) (1977).

The authors describe a study using a MOOG synthesizer in which seven 2-level factors, amplitude and pitch level, pitch contour, pitch variability, tempo, envelope and filtration, and other more complicated stimuli were systematically manipulated and then rated on emotional impact. Inter-judge (naive students) agreement was generally good, some emotions having more reliable cues than others, as might be expected.

Schmandt, C., B. Arons, and C. Simmons. "Voice Interaction in an Integrated Office and Telecommunications Environment." In Proceedings of 1985 Conference. American Voice I/O Society, 1985.

The Conversational Desktop is a conversational office assistant that manages personal communications (phone calls, voice mail messages, scheduling, reminders, etc.). The system engages the user in a conversation to resolve ambiguous speech recognition input.

Schmandt, C., and B. Arons. Conversational Desktop (videotape). ACM SIGGRAPH Video Rev. 27 (1987).

A four-minute videotape demonstrating many features of the Conversational Desktop.

Schmandt, C., and B. Arons. "Getting the Word." UNIX Rev. 7 (Oct. 1989): 54--62.

An overview of "Desktop Audio" including the systems and interface requirements for the use of speech and audio in the personal workstation. It includes a summary of the VOX Audio Server, a system for managing and controling the audio resources in a networked personal workstation.

Schroeder, M. R. "Digital Simulation of Sound Transmission in Reverberant Spaces." J. Acous. Soc. Am. 47 (1970): 424--431.

One of the core papers discussing techniques for the simulation of reverberant acoustic environments.

Sloboda, J. A. "Music Structure and Emotional Response: Some Empirical Findings." Psych. Music 19 (1991): 110--120.

The author presents analysis of experimental results of emotive response to music extracts related to the musical structure of the compositions.

Smith, R. B. "A Prototype Futuristic Technology for Distance Education." In Proceedings of the NATO Advanced Workshop on New Directions in Educational Technology, held November 10--13, 1988, in Cranfield, UK.

Smith describes SharedARK, a collaborative system that was the basis of SoundShark (Gaver & Smith, 1990) and ARKola (Gaver et al., 1991).

Smith, S. "An Auditory Display for Exploratory Visualization of Multidimensional Data." In Workstations for Experiment, edited by G. Grinstein and J. Encarnacao. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1991.

Although it was published in 1991, this is actually the earliest paper about the University of Massachusetts' Lowell work in sonification. It shows what their thinking was as they embarked on their investigations in 1988, which is now mostly of historical interest.

Smith, S., R. D. Bergeron, and G. Grinstein. "Stereophonic and Surface Sound Generation for Exploratory Data Analysis." In Multimedia and Multimodal Interface Design, edited by M. Blattner and R. Dannenberg. Reading, MA: ACM Press/Addison-Wesley, 1992.

Smith, S., R. D. Bergeron, and G. Grinstein. "Stereophonic and Surface Sound Generation for Exploratory Data Analysis." In Proceedings of CHI '90, held 1990, in Seattle, WA. ACM Press, 1990.

This paper, published in two places, describes the authors' attempt to introduce spatial aspects of sound into sonification. This direction was not pursued further.

Smith, S., G. Grinstein, and R. M. Pickett. "Global Geometric, Sound, and Color Controls for the Visualization of Scientific Data." In Proceedings of the SPIE/SPSE Conference on Electronic Imaging, Vol. 1459, 192--206. San Jose, CA: SPIE, 1991.

The authors argue that users should be able to fine-tune visual and auditory data displays to achieve the optimal presentation of their data. They gives examples of how this can be done with the "iconographic" display techniques they developed. The accompanying video gives one brief sound example.

Smith, S., R. M. Pickett, and M. G. Williams. "Environments for Exploring Auditory Representations of Multidimensional Data." In Auditory Display: Sonification, Audification, and Auditory Interfaces, edited by G. Kramer. Santa Fe Institute Studies in the Sciences of Complexity, Proc. Vol. XVIII. Reading, MA: Addison Wesley, 1994.

The authors outline a starting approach to sonification and argue for psychometric testing as part of the sonification design process.

Sorkin, R. D. "Design of Auditory and Tactile Displays." In Handbook of Human Factors, edited by G. Salvendy, 549--576. New York: Wiley & Sons, 1987.

In this chapter Sorkin addresses factors that must be considered in establishing the level, pitch, duration, shape, and temporal pattern of a sound. In addition, he covers the design of binaural sounds and complex coding for sounds.

Sorkin, R. D., F. L. Wightman, D. S. Kistler, and G. C. Elvers. "An Exploratory Study on the Use of Movement-Correlated Cues in an Auditory Head-Up Display." Human Factors 31 (1989): 161--166.

A sequence of three signals incorporating HRTF cues for auditory localization, was played to subjects over headphones, and subjects had to indicate the location of the source via keypress on a computer. This study focused on the importance of head movement in localization, and there were three conditions presented: (1) source fixed in physical space, head movement allowed; (2) no head movement allowed; and (3) source fixed in position relative to the subject's head. Azimuthal localization was found to be considerably better in the first case (source fixed in physical space/head movement allowed), demonstrating the importance to auditory localization of correlating cues to self-initiated movements of the listener's head.

Sorkin, R. D., D. E. Robinson, and B. G. Berg. "A Detection Theory Method for Evaluating Visual and Auditory Displays." In Proceedings of the Human Factors Society, Vol. 2, 1184--1188, 1987.

This paper describes a signal detection method for evaluating different display codes and formats. The method can be used to assess the relative importance of different elements of the display. The paper briefly summarizes data from different types of auditory and visual displays.

Sorkin, R. D., and D. D. Woods. "Systems with Human Monitors: A Signal Detection Analysis." Hum.-Comp. Inter. 1 (1985): 49--75.

This paper analyses the general system composed of a human operator plus an automated alarm subsystem. The combined human machine system is modeled as a two-stage detection system in which the operator and alarm subsystem monitor partially correlated noisy channels. System performance is shown to be highly sensitive to the decision bias (response criterion) of the alarm. The customary practice of using a "liberal" bias setting for the alarm (yielding a moderately high false alarm rate) is shown to produce poor overall system performance.

Sorkin, R. D., B. H. Kantowitz, and S. C. Kantowitz. "Likelihood Alarm Displays." Human Factors 30 (1988): 445--459.

This study describes a type of multilevel or graded alarm display in which the likelihood of the alarmed condition is encoded within the display. For example, the levels of an auditory alarm could vary by repetition rate or voice quality; and the levels of a visual display could vary by color. Several dual-task (tracking and alarm monitoring) experiments demonstrate the feasibility of Likelihood Alarm Displays.

Sorkin, R. D. "Why are People Turning Off Our Alarms?" J. Acous. Soc. Am. 84 (1988): 1107--1108. Reprinted in Human Factors Soc. Bull. 32 (1989): 3--4.

In this short paper Sorkin describes several tragic accidents in which auditory alarms had been disabled or ignored. The author argues that two culprits are high false-alarm rates and excessive sound levels.

Sorkin, R. D. "Perception of Temporal Patterns Defined by Tonal Sequences." J. Acous. Soc. Am. 87 (1990): 1695--1701.

In this study Sorkin describes a general model (the temporal correlation model) for predicting a listener's ability to discriminate between two auditory tone sequences that differ in their temporal pattern. According to the model, the listener abstracts the relative times of occurrence of the tones in each pattern and then computes the correlation between the two lists of relative times.

Speeth, S. D. "Seismometer Sounds." J. Acous. Soc. Am. 33 (1961): 909--916.

The author audified seismic data (sped up the playback of data recorded by seismometers to place the resultant frequencies in the audible range), and then set human subjects to the task of determining whether the stimulus was a bomb blast or an earthquake (after an appropriate training program). In this experiment, subjects were able to correctly classify seismic records as either bomb blasts or earthquakes for over 90% of the trials. Furthermore, because of the time compression required to bring the seismic signals into the audible range, an analyst could review 24-hours worth of data in about 5 minutes.

Stifelman, L. J., B. Arons, C. Schmandt, and E. A. Hulteen. "VoiceNotes: A Speech Interface for a Hand-Held Voice Notetaker." In Proceedings of INTERCHI '93, 179--186. Reading, MA: ACM Press/Addison-Wesley, 1993.

VoiceNotes is an application for a voice-controlled hand-held computer that allows the creation, management, and retrieval of user-authored "voice notes"--small segments of digitized speech containing thoughts, ideas, reminders, or things to do. VoiceNotes explores the problem of capturing and retrieving spontaneous ideas, the use of speech as data, and the use of speech input and output in the user interface for a hand-held computer without a visual display.

Stratton, V. N., and A. H. Zalanowski. "The Effects of Music and Cognition on Mood." Psych. Music 19 (1991): 121--127.

The author presents evidence that although the expected responses to pieces of music, selected for their affect inducing effects, apparently influenced the mood state of subjects performing a concurrent cognitive task (storytelling about a picture), the effect disappeared when specific mood instructions were given with the storytelling instructions. There was evidence that familiarity with the music and subjects individual preferences for the music selected also affected the extent to which their mood was influenced by the music.

Strothotte, T., K. Fellbaum, K. Crispien, M. Krause, and M. Kurze. "Multimedia Interfaces for Blind Computer Users." In Rehabilitation Technology--Proceedings of the 1st TIDE Congress, held April 6--7, 1993, in Brussels. ISSN: 0926-9630. IOS Press, 1993.

This paper deals with selected aspects of blind peoples' access to GUI computer systems which are addressed by the GUIB project (Textual and Graphical User Interfaces for Blind people). A new loudspeaker-based device for two-dimensional sound output to enable users to locate the position of screen objects is described. In a prototypical application, blind people are given access to a class of computer-generated graphics using the new device in an interactive process of exploration.

Strybel, T. Z., A. M. Witty, and D. R. Perrott. "Auditory Apparent Motion in the Free Field: The Effects of Stimulus Duration and Intensity." Percep. & Psycho. 52(2) (1992): 139--143.

The authors find that a minimum duration of 10--50 msec is required for the perception of auditory apparent motion, with the exact time varying from listener to listener.

Stuart, R. "Virtual Auditory Worlds: An Overview." In VR Becomes a Business: Proceedings of Virtual Reality '92, held September 1992, in San Jose, CA, 144--166. Westport, CT: Meckler, 1992.

An overview of issues concerning virtual auditory environments and applications that have been proposed or on which work is proceeding. It includes an extensive bibliography.

Sumikawa, D. A., M. M. Blattner, K. I. Joy, and R. M. Greenberg. "Guidelines for the Syntactic Design of Audio Cues in Computer Interfaces." In Nineteenth Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences Los Alamitos, CA: IEEE Computer Society Press, 1986.

The material for this article is drawn from an M.S. thesis with the same name by Denise A. Sumikawa, University of California, Davis, also published as Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory Technical Report, UCRL-53656, June 1985. The material was later extended and became: "Earcons and Icons: Their Structure and Common Design Principles."